Military History

Seventy years ago, the Nuremberg Trials were in full swing in Germany. In the dock were the leaders of the Nazi regime and most eventually received their just desserts. But what happened to the other war criminals?In June 1946, Lord Russell of Liverpool became Deputy Judge Advocate and legal adviser to the Commander in Chief for the British Army of the Rhine in respect of all trials held by British Military Courts of German war criminals. He later wrote;'At the outbreak of the Second World War, the treatment of prisoners was governed by the Geneva Prisoner of War Convention of 1929, the Preamble of which stated that the aim of the signatories was to alleviate the conditions of prisoners of war. 'During the war, however, the provisions of the Convention were repeatedly disregarded by Germany. Prisoners were subjected to brutality and ill-treatment, employed on prohibited and dangerous work, handed over to the SD for "special treatment" in pursuance of Hitler's Commando Order, lynched in the streets by German civilians, sent to concentration camps, shot on recapture after escaping, and even massacred after they had laid down their arms and surrendered.'Tens of thousands of Allied prisoners of war died at the hands of the Nazis and their Italian allies. This book is for them - lest we forget.

'The infantryman always bears the brunt' according to Field-Marshal Wavell in 1945. The 'Poor Bloody Infantry,' 'The Grunts on the Ground,' the infantry have often been seen as the humble, indeed shunned, relations of others, from cavalry to tanks. This book is their story, one from the dawn of human conflict to the present day, a study that looks round the world to consider fighting, weaponry, recruitment, contexts and impact. Infantry as the shock of assault as well as firepower, as the force in state-to-state conflict and in civil warfare, in symmetrical and asymmetrical warfare, are considered, as are the different accounts of development that are offered. Central to the military and to combat, infantry has also served many non-combat roles, notably as the arm of government. Indeed, infantry can be crucial to political history and nation-building, from coups to iconic battles

Border Battles describes the events which took place on the battlefields of the Anglo-Scottish Wars, 1018-1513. Author Chris Peers links these with a historical narrative of the campaigns, the political situation which gave rise to them and the geographical factors which shaped them. Included are the two dramatic battles at Alnwick in 1093 & 1174 which highlighted the superiority of Anglo-Norman cavalry, the little known battle of Carham, battles at Berwick on Tweed - the most fought over town in Britain - and Flodden, the largest and bloodiest battle ever fought in the region between the two warring kingdoms, among others. A chapter is also given to the castles built during this period to defend Northumberland against Scottish incursions, which remain important features in the landscape, discussing the general principles of medieval defensive structures as well as the specific strategic situation, especially at Bamborough, Warkworth, Alnwick and Chillingham castles. A complementary volume to The Highland Battles (2020) and Clan Battles (2023), each chapter concludes with a guide to visiting the sites, and the book will be illustrated with photographs of both the featured battlefields and other notable sites of interest.

This is a story of 'ordinary' people - ordinary people who were caught up in the cataclysm of events in Europe during the 1930s and 1940s. A discovery of letters that had been carefully kept for decades since that time led to the uncovering of a family story that took the author on a journey in the footsteps of her husband's grandparents through Germany, Belgium, and France. Hermann Hartog (1887-1942) was a Jewish teacher in the north-west of Germany at a time of increasing anti-Semitism. He and his wife, Henny (1897-1942) recognised that Germany was becoming an unsafe place for Jews and sent their daughters to England for safety. As a leader of his community, Hermann stayed for as long as he could. After 'Kristallnacht' in November 1938, Hermann was arrested with other Jewish men and sent to the concentration camp at Sachsenhausen. He was later released on condition that he would leave the country. Hermann and Henny fled Germany for Brussels, but when Belgium was invaded in 1940 they were sent to Paris, and then found refuge in a village in the south-west of France. Here, 'ordinary' people gave them shelter, work and friendship - and shared their lives during the dark days of 1941 and 1942. When French police - acting on the orders of the Vichy government and the Nazi occupiers of France - arrested Hermann and Henny, it was part of a round-up of Jews to deport them for extermination. After a long journey, they were murdered in Auschwitz in September 1942. An active memory of the Hartog family lives on. In France and Germany, 'ordinary' people remember their names, commemorate their legacy, and work to build communities where tolerance, acceptance, and friendship can thrive.

On 26 May 1940, the Admiralty issued the directive for Operation Dynamo, aiming to rescue the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) from Dunkirk. Initially, they expected to evacuate only 45,000 men within two days, anticipating that enemy action would soon end the operation. However, the outcome exceeded all expectations. Between 26 May and 4 June 1940, a fleet of naval and civilian vessels evacuated 338,682 men, a feat considered impossible. The scale of this success prompted The New York Times to declare Dunkirk a word of reverence. The British Army's Quartermaster-General called it "unprecedented in the history of war."The Dunkirk evacuation has been immortalized in numerous books and films, becoming one of the defining moments of British history. Today, many artifacts from the operation remain, including shipwrecks, rifles, and photographs, each serving as poignant reminders of the event. Through 100 objects, this book tells the powerful story of The Miracle of Dunkirk, bringing the past to life by showcasing these historical remnants and memorials.

Too often historical writing on the Russian War of 1854-56 focuses narrowly on the land campaign fought in the Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea. The wider war waged at sea by the British and French navies against the Russians is ignored. The allied navies aimed to strike at Russian interests anywhere in the world where naval force could be brought to bear and as a result campaigns were waged in the Baltic, the Black Sea, the White Sea, on the Russian Pacific coast and in the Sea of Azoff. Yet it is the land campaign in the Crimea that shapes our understanding of events. In this graphic and original study, Peter Duckers seeks to set the record straight. He shows how these neglected naval campaigns were remarkably successful, in contrast to the wretched failures that beset the British army on land. Allied warships ranged across Russian waters sinking shipping, disrupting trade, raiding ports, bombarding fortresses, destroying vast quantities of stores and shelling coastal towns. The scale and intensity of the naval operations embarked upon during the war are astonishing, and little appreciated, and this new book offers the first overall survey of them.

The Nazi Connection details Frederick William Winterbotham's work as Chief of the Air Intelligence Department in the British Secret Intelligence Service before World War II. Tasked with gathering intelligence on military aviation in potential adversary nations, Winterbotham focused on Germany, visiting the country multiple times as a civilian Air Ministry official. His apparent sympathy for Nazi ideology allowed him to gather vital information on Germany's rearmament plans, while building relationships with high-ranking Nazis. Winterbotham was welcomed by top Nazi officials, including Alfred Rosenberg, and even met Hitler, Hess, and Göring. During his visits, Winterbotham learned about Hitler's plans to invade the Soviet Union and gained insights into Germany's military preparations, including the emerging concept of blitzkrieg. Despite this critical intelligence, convincing British leaders to heed these warnings proved difficult. Winterbotham's predictions were dismissed until Germany's military aggression became undeniable. The Nazi Connection explores the complex web of espionage and deception surrounding Winterbotham's mission. It questions how different the course of history might have been if Britain had acted on Winterbotham's intelligence about Nazi Germany's intentions. This story of missed opportunities and high-stakes intelligence offers a fascinating look into the prelude to World War II.

The Tokyo Sixteen tells the gripping story of the sixteen pilots who took part in the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo in April 1942. The book follows their personal journeys, from their diverse backgrounds and motivations for joining the military to their daring participation in one of WWII's most audacious missions. It begins with a deep dive into each pilot's life before the war, highlighting their unique aspirations and shared sense of duty. The narrative then shifts to the intense and secretive training required to launch B-25 bombers from an aircraft carrier, a technical feat that had never been attempted before. The heart of the book focuses on the raid itself, capturing the pilots' courage as they flew into enemy territory, bombed Tokyo, and then faced perilous escapes. Personal stories of bravery, survival, and the physical and mental toll of the mission form a powerful narrative throughout. The aftermath of the raid is no less compelling, with pilots crashing in enemy territory or narrowly escaping capture. The book concludes by reflecting on the lasting legacy of the Doolittle Raiders, celebrating their heroism and the enduring impact of their bravery. The Tokyo Sixteen is a tribute to the strength of the human spirit in extreme circumstances.

Comic-operetta stage set, or ghost town haunted by the walking dead - Sigmaringen still fascinates long after its collapse at the end of the Second World War. This enclave of French Vichy officials and fascists on German soil - refugees and hostages maintained at the Nazis' pleasure - played out the last residue of French collaborationism in the closing months of the war, presided over by the inert figurehead of Marshal Pétain, against the fairytale backdrop of Sigmaringen Castle. No single English-language history of the Sigmaringen enclave exists, yet it brought together some of the most colourful and controversial collaborationists, from the militant French SS officer Joseph Darnand to the delirious writer Louis-Ferdinand Céline, in a petri dish for the last samples of the collaborationism that had infected France and laid her low. Vichy's Last Castle brings together contemporary documents, eye-witness reports, diplomatic communiques and protests, and personal chronicles, alongside post-war analyses, war crimes trials, apologetics and memoirs, to provide a complete picture of the Sigmaringen enclave, from daily life to political chicanery. From the vain, formal protests of Marshal Pétain to the hallucinatory stream-of-consciousness of Céline, the book draws on contemporary photographs as well as texts to encapsulate this bizarre milieu, where the rank-and-file starved and suffered, while the elite played and plotted their tragicomic endgame, in a sublimely appropriate Wagnerian setting.

On 6 April 1941, Nazi Germany, along with Italy and Hungary, invaded Yugoslavia after the overthrow of the Yugoslav regent, Prince Paul. Hitler sought to secure the right flank for his upcoming invasion of the USSR and assist Mussolini, who had failed to conquer Greece. The German attack was swift, and by 17 April, Yugoslavia capitulated, leading to the creation of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH). Ante Pavelic, leader of the fascist Ustaše organization, was installed as the head of Croatia. His government immediately began a brutal campaign of repression against non-Croatians, especially Serbs. This sparked rebellions, with Serbian Chetnik bands and Croatian communists forming separate guerrilla movements. The Croatian state was soon overwhelmed by these insurgencies. Italy further complicated matters by creating occupation zones within Croatia, supporting Chetnik bands, and hampering Croatian military efforts. The Croatian Army, unable to fortify its territory due to Italian restrictions, was often attacked by Chetniks and forced to fight on two fronts. Despite these challenges, including inadequate armament and the constant interference of its allies, Croatia maintained a military force that continued to fight until the war's bitter end.

In a world defined by the brutalities of war, one German general stands apart from the Hollywood stereotype. Before the storm of the Second World War, Fridolin von Senger und Etterlin was a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford, fluent in multiple languages, and a devoted Christian - a lifelong Benedictine Oblate. From the very outset he was anti-Nazi and, on many occasions, defied Hitler's orders. His military skills were good; in France he beat Rommel to Cherbourg and on the Eastern Front he tried to relieve the German 6th Army in Stalingrad. It was in Italy where his reputation grew by safely evacuating German troops from Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, a delicate matter because the Italians had changed sides. He defeated General Clark's forces at the Rapido battle fiasco, and he caused Cassino to become a serious hold up for the Allied advance north. It was he who willingly signed the surrender documents in Italy on 4 May 1945. His Christian beliefs meant there were no barbarities within his command, and he made lifelong friends with some occupied residents, helping to save lives from the dreaded SS, and the Italian partisans never attacked him because he had helped the helpless. He was a brilliant tactician, always with his troops on the frontline, and his anti-Nazi views were not a post-war justification but were widely known during the war years by friend and foe. Von Senger was never even considered for war crimes, and was granted the rare privilege of being allowed to explore the English countryside from the Bridgend PoW camp. Discover the life of a general who fought not just for victory, but for honour, compassion, and morality under the brutal Nazi regime.

On Afghanistan's Plains tells the story of four gruelling tours of duty during Operation Herrick, the codename under which British operations in Afghanistan were conducted from 2002 until 2014 when the mission changed from direct combat with the Taliban to one of mentoring Afghan forces. Allan Mallinson, military historian and former Light Dragoons officer, explains Operation Herrick's complex historical and strategic background and describes the evolving tactical thinking in this multi-national, NATO-led campaign. Almost from the start, The Light Dragoons, a small, tight-knit, "family" regiment recruiting in Yorkshire and the north-east of England, were in action in Helmand Province, the principal British area of operations. As an armoured reconnaissance regiment they played a leading role in Operation Panther's Claw, the month-long battle in the searing summer heat of 2012, which saw much hard fighting and many casualties, and proved to be a turning point in the campaign. On Afghanistan's Plains describes what it was like to be in Helmand on foot or cooped-up in an armoured vehicle fighting the Taliban. NATO's commander-in-chief in Afghanistan in later years, US General Stanley McChrystal, paid The Light Dragoons the greatest compliment: "When I looked into their eyes, which were bloodshot with fatigue, I remember the extraordinary professionalism, competence and the sheer courage of those young men."

Mention war crimes trials to almost anyone and they will respond with one word, 'Nuremberg.' Most think there was only one trial following the Second World War, the International Military Tribunal, but this trial indicted only 24 defendants. They represented the most senior Nazis accused of conspiracy, crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity. But few were involved directly in any of the millions of individual atrocities. The victorious allies, the Soviet Union, the USA, Britain and France, tried hundreds of other cases in many different cities. The British trials took place in several locations in Germany, but most war criminals in British custody faced prosecution in one city. The Curiohaus Trials immerses readers in the untold story of war crimes trials that took place in a miraculously intact concert hall in war-torn Hamburg. Using freshly examined archive material, cross-referenced sources and information from the scenes of the crimes, this gripping account unveils the complex legal proceedings in courtrooms where orchestras previously played. Step by step, readers become immersed in the gathering of evidence, moving testimony and the intricate pursuit of truth. Amidst the search for justice, however, moral and ethical dilemmas arose. The book explores the challenges faced by prosecutors, defence lawyers and judges who had to navigate the fine line between seeking retribution and ensuring a fair trial in a shattered post-war society. It reveals an almost exclusive reliance on eye-witness testimony (even when physical evidence was available), a shocking decline in appetite to try those responsible for grievous atrocities and an astonishing absence of justice at the end of the process. The Curiohaus Trials is an essential read for those interested in modern history, international law and the search for justice.

Humour is a vital ingredient for the morale of a nation at war. From the John Bull cartoons mocking a hook-nosed Napoleon carving up the world, the caricatures of an obese Kaiser in the First World War, to an often angry Hitler, cartoons have not only portrayed the enemy in a satirical light but have raised a smile in the darkest of times. Self-depreciating humour is also a facet of cartoons during wartime - making fun of incumbent politicians and incompetent generals - while at the same time challenging the decisions of those in powerful positions in a manner meant to embarrass. Indeed, cartoons often carry a serious message which exemplifies the subject far more impactfully than the written word. It is also the case that cartoons can broach subjects too sensitive to be touched upon in editorials or by columnists. Such is the case with this absorbing, if light-hearted view of the Second World War portraying the seismic events of the conflict in a fashion which everyone at the time could understand and nod their appreciation to with a smile on their lips. The Second World War in Cartoons begins in the 1930s with events in Germany and the Rhineland and the slow march to war. This is followed by the inevitable references to the Phoney War and to Hitler's 'Sink-on-Sight Navy' after the Graf Speen had been scuttled by her captain. A more serious tone is undertaken during Britain's darkest hour, the cartoons reflecting Churchill's stubborn determination to resist and encouraging the fighter boys to stop Hitler. Gradually, the mood changes as the UK's strategic position improves. When the war ended in Europe, a cartoon of Germany depicts a notice 'Under New Management'. Churchill's defeat in the 1945 election resulted in one cartoonist declaring that Britain had 'dropped its pilot' and, ever a cartoonist favourite character, among the final images is that of Churchill declaring an Iron Curtain had descended across the Continent, as the Cold War took its grip. Each of these wonderful cartoons is provided with a full explanation of the background to each one, and its relevant to the events of the day.

The COSSAC planners in 1943 outlined a strategy to capture the city of Caen, some 10 miles in-land from the coastline with an airborne division. On assumption of command of 21st Army Group, General Montgomery up-scaled the invasion and inserting SWORD Beach, gave the task of capturing the city to the 3rd Division on D Day or shortly afterwards. The Germans, however, seeing the number of Allied divisions, many fictional, multiplying on their situation maps, believed that a secondary landing would be made in Normandy. In April 1944, they therefore made significant reinforcements including moving the 21st Panzer Division to the important transport node of Caen that, if held, barred the way onto the more open country south to Falaise. Though aware of the German reinforcement thanks to ULTRA, the Allied aspiration remained to capture Caen and fix the Germans against the British Second Army on the eastern flank of the lodgement. In doing so, it became obvious that the city would not be captured as quickly or cleanly as originally envisaged. On D Day, the 3rd Division faced not just the coastal crust of defences, but German formations deployed in depth, including the 21st Panzer Division barring the way to Caen. Beset with difficulties resulting from Eisenhower's decision to 'go' in less-than-ideal conditions, the landing was slow and the division could not develop the necessary momentum to carry them to the city.

In 1983, Grenada, a small Commonwealth Island in the Caribbean, had strong ties with Communist Cuba. Bernard Coard and a group of hard-line Marxist-Leninists overthrew the unelected Prime Minister Maurice Bishop and then executed Bishop and his entourage. President Ronald Reagan displayed a paranoic concern as he believed that, in Grenada, Cuba was building a powerful military base. To eliminate what he saw as a threat, he resolved to initiate regime change in Grenada. To justify an armed intervention, he made the safety of US citizens on the Island his casus belli. The poorly trained, lightly-armed and unmotivated military forces of Grenada were only hundreds strong. Nevertheless, Reagan assembled a major fleet and 7,500 troops to invade the island and rescue his citizens. This was an overly massive hammer to crack a miniscule nut. Reagan misled the British Government as to his intentions, ignored the trenchant views of Prime Minister Thatcher and, having assembled a cosmetic coalition of other Caribbean states, US forces invaded the island. This well-researched and perceptive book by an experienced historian examines what he describes as, 'a masterclass in political and military ineptitude'. The invasion was judged by the United Nations to be illegal and, during the USA's three-day Operation URGENT FURY, anything that could go wrong - did. However, the courage of American servicemen is not in question although the quality of their senior leadership is. In this far-reaching book, the author covers the trial of the murderers, and the impact of Reagan's belligerent rhetoric that, following URGENT FURY, very nearly triggered World War III. This is a crisp, incisive summation and very readable account of an incident in modern history that restored democracy to Grenada, and led to major changes in the manner that the armed forces of the USA conduct their business.

In 1837, Queen Victoria inherited an army that had not changed greatly from that which defeated Napoleon in 1815, although reform was already under way. The process of reorganization and modernization, however, continued throughout her reign. As the British army protected and extended the Empire, it strove to adapt to rapidly advancing technology and an incredible array of enemies and environments. This was the period in which many of the of its most famous battle honours were won, such as Balaklava, Rorke's Drift and Omdurman. Gabriele Esposito gives a comprehensive overview of the history, organization, weapons and uniforms of the various components of the British army. All branches of the service are included: Foot Guards, line infantry, Highland infantry, light infantry, rifle corps (the King's Royal Rifle Corps and the Rifle Brigade), Life Guards and Horse Guards, Dragoon Guards, Dragoons, Light Dragoons, Hussars, Lancers, Royal Artillery, Royal Engineers and Royal Army Service Corps. The Royal Marines and Royal Marine Artillery, while technically part of the Royal Navy, are also covered as they often fought with the land forces. The 'legions' of British volunteers who fought abroad and the foreign military units in British service are also considered. He traces the great changes that happened across the period in both military dress (the famous red coats giving way to khaki) and equipment (notably, muskets being replaced by breech-loading rifles and machine guns). Dozens of beautiful colour artworks illustrate this glorious period of British military history.

"Remarkably ambitious in scope, Harte manages to knit together a social and cultural history of these years, including how Churchill both influenced the world and was defined by the issues of the day. Harte wants to show when and where the 'scrawny little twenty-year-old second lieutenant became a global leader.' The question is not a new one, but it never fails to fascinate." - **International Churchill Society**Churchill's Enemies describes Winston Churchill's main challenges when he was out of office from 1929-1939. They were the rise to dictatorship of Benito Mussolini in Italy and the adaptation of his fascist system by the Nazi Party in Germany. It also explains the relevance of Hitler's collaboration with the Mufti of Jerusalem in the Middle East, who spread Nazi ideology in Jerusalem, Gaza, and Lebanon - and how, step by step, the two European dictators destroyed democracy. This account of the first half of Winston Churchill's life should help readers to understand how today's world crisis began. The Cairo Conference was the West's first attempt to bring the Arab world into the twentieth century by solving the Middle East crisis in 1921. It also shows how Churchill changed from an ambitious young politician to an elder statesman, as a consequence of his experiences in the changing world with all its complexities, paradoxes and ambiguities - and how his decisions still impact world politics today. The major menaces with which he was confronted throughout his political career were the chaos caused by Islamist terrorists in the Middle East from 1918 and the spread of communism and fascism when he was Minister for War and then Colonial Secretary. The author described the first two threats in his previous book, Churchill's Challenges.

Self-propelled anti-tank and anti-aircraft vehicles were a key element of the Nazi Army during the Second World War. Anti-tank weapons assumed great importance from the outbreak of war as combatants developed ever more effective armoured vehicles and tactics. Some were little more than stopgap solutions, such as mounting the weapons on a tracked vehicle to give enhanced mobility, while others were more sophisticated designs. Examples of the development of tank destroyer technology throughout the war are the Marders, Jagdpanzer 38, and Nashorn. In order to provide much needed fire power, vehicles like the 5-ton Sd.Kfz.6 halftrack mounted Soviet 76.2mm field guns. The Marder series played a key role supporting armoured operations with their anti-tank guns. Anti-aircraft firepower was vital to give protection to troops from increasingly potent Allied ground-attack. The Germans also mounted anti-aircraft guns onboard halftracks such as the Sd.Kfz.10/5 and 10/4 armed with 2cm Flak guns, the medium Sd.Kfz.7/1 halftrack mounting 2cm flak guns, including quadruple flak guns on certain modified vehicles. Later in the war there was the Flakpanzer 38 (t) with a 2cm flak gun, an Sd.Kfz.6/2 Flak halftrack, and the Flakpanzer IV `Wirbelwind` with a rotating flak gun turret armed with quadruple 2cm flak guns. In true Images of War style the authoritative text is superbly supported by well captioned contemporary images.

Dr Adrian Greaves' is widely acknowledged as a leading expert on the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879 and his previous account of Rorke's Drift has become a standard work on that battle. However, by his own admission, it is hopelessly out of date as are other existing accounts. Rorke's Drift Revisited is not merely a revised edition of that earlier work but a completely new account with much new research that challenges many misconceptions and myths. Explaining how previous accounts have been distorted by false reporting, false memory syndrome, ignorance of the site and archaeological evidence, the author presents fascinating fresh evidence and analysis. Among the more sensational revelations is that Lieutenant John Chard did not write the famous Chard Report, which has been the main primary source for the battle. He also shows that neither Lieutenant Ardendorff nor the missionary Reverend Otto Witt was there. Nor were the famous mealie-bag-and-biscuit-box barricades hastily erected, as per the film; they were carefully planned and built over several preceding days. Drawing on previously neglected eyewitness accounts as well as the latest archaeological evidence, there is a wealth of other new information and fresh perspectives. The shift in perceptions of the battle and its hold on the national psyche is also discussed. Uniquely, over a quarter of a century of physically revisiting Rorke's Drift and associated sites as a tour leader allows him to give an accurate appraisal of the battlefield today.

The intelligence war between Germany and the Soviet Union, ignited by Operation Barbarossa on 22 June 1941, was fiercely contested over four years. Neither side was prepared for the scale of the conflict, and both quickly developed methods to assess and counter each other's military intentions. This book explores the intelligence strategies of Stalin's SMERSH and Hitler's Abwehr. SMERSH coordinated three independent counter-intelligence agencies within the Red Army, while the Abwehr was Germany's military-intelligence service. Focusing on key battles like Stalingrad and Kursk, the book examines how both sides competed for intelligence advantage. The Soviets excelled in strategic deception, manipulating German decision-making. Early in the war, they used counterintelligence to deceive the Germans, notably during their surprise counteroffensive at Moscow in December 1941 and their hidden tank formations in 1942. German intelligence chief Gehlen underestimated Soviet deception and overestimated German superiority, which hindered effective analysis. Meanwhile, the Soviets deployed agents behind German lines and employed terror tactics to destroy German operations. The pivotal battle of Stalingrad revealed the Germans' intelligence failures, and their subsequent losses marked a turning point. By the war's end, Soviet counterintelligence had become a critical weapon, reshaping the intelligence landscape and significantly impacting the outcome of the war.

The Ordnungspolizei or Order Police was one of the main apparatus for the security of Nazi Germany. During the 1930s, Heinrich Himmler, Head of the SS, along with the Commander-in-Chief of the Order Police, Kurt Daluege, totally reconstructed the police force of the Weimar Republic into a number of strong militarized formations. Those that served in this new police force were more than ready to carry out any order that the Nazi's required of them including persecution of Jews and anyone deemed inferior to the regime. In fact, in 1938, police units participated in the annexation of Austria and the occupation of Czechoslovakia. A year later when Germany invaded Poland, the role of the police changed forever. Police units were deployed alongside the German military including the special murder squads of the Einsatzgruppen. In Poland, Order Police were transformed into militarized police battalions and participated in combat operations which included carrying out security duties behind enemy lines. These duties were often sinister and alongside some Wehrmacht, Waffen-SS and Einsatzgruppen, the police battalions engaged in the systematic murder and annihilation of Poles and Jews. Following the conquest of Poland the Nazi leadership created a massive recruitment drive conscripting more than 95,000 men in their thirties. Another 26,000 younger men were also recruited and indoctrinated into Nazi ideology and trained for combat. These new recruits would now take part not only in military operations but would be an integral part of the Holocaust, responsible for mass murders and guarding some of the Jewish ghettos. They would also assist in the destruction of the ghettos and helping in the transport of Jews to concentration camps. During the summer of 1941 these Police units were involved in mass killings of Babi Yar, Rumbula and Stanislaviv. Yet after the war, many of the Order Policemen claimed never to have been involved in Nazi crimes.

Covers documents from the life and career of James Madison from 1 April 1807 to 30 September 1807.