Books in the British Archaeological Reports International Series series

Este libro propone una forma de estudiar la historia de los modos de vida en paisajes mineros desde una perspectiva histórica-arqueológica, más precisamente, desde el análisis de la documentación histórica disponible y la materialidad sociocultural recuperada en sitios arqueológicos mineros del norte de la provincia de Mendoza, en el centro oeste de Argentina. Especialmente, el estudio aborda los procesos de transformaciones y transiciones generadas en los sistemas de trabajo y modos de vida ocurridos en contextos mineros en la larga duración (siglos XVII al XX inclusive). Este trabajo realiza una descripción densa de las particularidades sociohistóricas y ambientales que configuraron a las labores mineras del área de estudio, identificando los sistemas tecnológicos y métodos de trabajo, la construcción del espacio doméstico-productivo y el impacto socioambiental que caracteriza a estas actividades mineras.This book studies the way of life in mining landscapes from a historical-archaeological perspective, analysing the available historical documentation and material culture recovered from mining archaeological sites in the north of Mendoza, in central western Argentina.  

This archaeological and art-historical study is woven around rock art and ancient metallic articles attributed to Tibet. The silver bowls, gold finial, and copper alloy spouted jars and trapezoidal plaques featured are assigned to the Iron Age and Protohistoric period. These rare objects are adorned with zoomorphic subjects mimicking those found in rock art and embody an artistic zeitgeist widely diffused in Central Eurasia in Late Prehistory. Diverse sources of inspiration and technological capability are revealed in these objects and rock art, shedding light on their transcultural dimension. The archaeological and aesthetic materials in this work prefigure the Tibetan cosmopolitanism of early historic times promoted through the spread of Buddhist ideas, art and craft from abroad. The metallic articles and petroglyphs of this study are markers of relationships between Tibet and her neighbours. These transactions enabled a fusion of Tibetan innovation and foreign inventiveness, a synthesis of disparate ideas, aesthetics and technologies in the objects and rock art presented.

The Christian cultural heritage of north Africa is ancient and rich, but at risk after recent political events. The Christian, Coptic heritage of Egypt remains poorly studied from the perspective of heritage management and is also at risk from a number of factors. Using first-hand study and analysis based upon original fieldwork, Egypt's Christian Heritage offers an assessment to the risks facing Coptic monuments in Egypt today. It does this by situating Egyptian heritage policy within the English framework, and it establishes theoretical approaches to value, significance, meaning, and interpretation in Egyptian heritage within a wider global framework. The research is based on the analysis of three markedly different Egyptian Christian Coptic sites, each with their own unique management issues. This book offers a series of solutions and ideas to preserve, manage and interpret this unique material culture and to emphasise community solutions as being the most viable and sustainable approaches, whilst taking into account the varied levels of significance of these monuments.

In 1990 the University of Minnesota carried out an architectural survey of the standing remains of the Bronze Age Palace of Nestor, discovered by Carl Blegen in 1939 and excavated from 1952 to 1966. While the first stone-by-stone state plan of the building was being created, it became clear that some of the architectural assumptions about the structure and its history could not be correct. Over the next eight years the Blegen-period backfill covering the site was systematically removed so that a complete architectural plan could be prepared. The work was carried out using the protocols of an archaeological excavation. Although only backfill was removed, numerous unexpected finds were recovered, ranging from discarded Linear B tablets and wall painting fragments to roof tiles and pottery; in addition, a detailed study of the architecture revealed evidence for startling new conclusions about the structure of the palace and the history of the site.Part I - New Studies at the Palace of NestorWith contributions by Todd M. Brenningmeyer, Frederick A. Cooper, Joshua N. Distler, Caitlin Downey, Anne B. Hollond, Eleni M. Konstantinidi-Syvridi, George Otto Marquardt, Shawn A. RossPart II - The Architecture of the Palace of Nestorby Michael C. Nelson

This volume presents the finds from an Early Bronze Age necropolis in the Jüna Morava Basin in the heart of the Balkans holding exclusively incinerated deceased. A total of 21 deceased were registered in the same number of graves, distributed in three segments. The remains of the deceased, along with grave goods, were covered by a small circular stone construction (c. 1 m) and then with a bigger circular stone structure between 1.5 and 3 m. The grave goods comprised fragmented or completely preserved vessels of which ember containers were the most specific. Besides a traditional archaeological approach to the topic, such as studies of necropolis architecture, burial rites, grave goods, and absolute dates, the book contains two analytical reports which approach the topic from a multidisciplinary perpspective. The first one (Filipovi¿, Filatova) analyses the remains of wood from the pyre and the second one (Gaji¿ et al.) deals with the physical-chemical composition of pottery from the necropolis.

En esta investigación se han estudiado los restos malacológicos recuperados en el conchero mesolítico de El Mazo (Asturias, España) aplicando diferentes análisis arqueológicos y geoquímicos. El estudio interdisciplinar desarrollado ha permitido reconstruir, por primera vez, el efecto del evento climático frío 8,2 ka cal BP en las condiciones marinas del norte de la península ibérica. Así mismo, también se ha estudiado el impacto de este cambio climático abrupto en las estrategias de subsistencia de los últimos cazadores-recolectores-pescadores en esta área litoral. La evolución biométrica de las conchas marinas ha permitido inferir cambios a corto plazo en los patrones de explotación del litoral durante el Mesolítico, deduciendo así lapsos temporales en los que se produjo una mayor presión sobre los recursos costeros. Por otro lado, los análisis de isótopos estables de oxígeno en conchas marinas de la especie Phorcus lineatus también permitieron deducir la estación o estaciones en las que se produjo la captura de estos moluscos. El desarrollo de un programa experimental, en el que se recolectaron moluscos modernos, posibilitó evaluar la gestión que los grupos humanos hicieron de los recursos costeros durante el Mesolítico.This book presents the results of an interdisciplinary archaeomalacological investigation carried out using mollusc shell remains recovered from the mesolithic shell midden site of El Mazo cave (Asturias, Spain).

En momentos de incremento de los gobiernos de extrema derecha en todo el mundo, la emergencia de regímenes autoritarios es, de nuevo, un tema de actualidad. La arqueología tiene mucho que decir a este respecto, dado que se adentra en los cimientos ideológicos y materiales de las formaciones políticas. Qué caracteriza a un régimen dictatorial, cuáles son los factores estructurales que los permiten emerger y consolidarse y cómo mantienen el poder y el control sobre la población son algunas de las cuestiones principales consideradas en este volumen desde un punto de vista arqueológico. Este volumen recoge contribuciones de ocho países distintos de Latinoamérica y Europa que aplican distintas metodologías arqueológicas sobre casos de estudio claves para analizar los regímenes dictatoriales del siglo XX. En el trasfondo, el volumen discute en profundidad las posibilidades, límites y retos de una arqueología de la dictadura tanto como metodología de análisis del pasado contemporáneo y como forma de entender mejor nuestro presente.Written during a time of increasingly extreme right politics across the globe, the emergence of authoritarian regimes is once again a relevant and pressing issue. This volume gathers contributions from eight different Latin American and European countries which apply different archaeological methodologies on key case studies to confront dictatorial regimes of the 20th century.

This monograph analyses human figures that appear in Aegean Bronze Age art, considering the roles and relations between genders, and interpreting differential status or power implications. Susan E. Poole studies a comprehensive range of figures that appear on wall paintings, glyptics (seals, seal impressions and finger rings), and some three-dimensional objects. The gestures and postures displayed in the body language are examined, together with placements and orientations between the figures. The author considers the way figures occupy their surrounding space, possible gender distinct activities, the seating of figures, and processions. A structural iconographic method is used to interpret the material, together with ethological, sociological and linguistic approaches, and a combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis is applied. The research includes a rich corpus of images from a wide range of sources to illustrate observations.

This book addresses a paradox concerning the role of clay at Çatalhöyük that arises from conflicting material culture and landscape views of what clay truly afforded this early agricultural community. The highly-developed and artistically rich clay-based material culture points to clay being a major contributor to the site's success. However, the underlying thick, impermeable clay beds are also thought to have impeded the drainage of seasonal floods, periodically isolating the community in extensive wetlands and clearly hostile to early agriculture. A landscape re-appraisal is made based on the recognition that the heavier clay artifacts must have been locally sourced and can therefore be read as direct samples of the local Neolithic landscape. The result is a revised landscape interpretation that no longer conflicts with the observed patterns of clay use or broader subsistence practice at Çatalhöyük. Clay's role is re-examined in this revised landscape context to demonstrate a fuller and more complex picture than previously thought.

Oleksandr Shelekhan comprehensively examines Scythian bladed weapons belonging to farmer tribes who lived in the East European Forest-Steppe from the 7th century to between the 4th and early 3rd centuries BC. The analysis demonstrates a detailed typological and chronological distribution, showing distinctive tendencies of adoption and dissemination of the different weapon types across the period and the region. The author uses this evidence to produce a social and historical reconstruction of Scythian culture. Swords and daggers found in burials are connected with certain sex and age groups. The correlation of swords and daggers with other prestigious artefacts and ritual features indicate the high social status of a majority of swordsmen. The Scythians were high ranking amongst the social structure of farmer tribes, and the Forest-Steppe region was included in the military-political structure of Great Scythia during the Early Iron Age.

This monograph examines the religious and mythological concepts of Zeus from prehistoric times until the Early Archaic period. The research was performed as an interdisciplinary study involving the evidence of the Homeric poems, archaeology, linguistics,as well as comparative Indo-European material. It is argued that Greek Zeus, as a god with certainly established Indo-European origins, was essentially a god of the open sky and the supposed progenitor of everything, a supreme, but not ruling deity; initially, he must have been distinct from the god of storms, who, for unknown reasons, completely disappeared from Greek religion and mythology by as early as the Late Bronze Age. From the time of Homer, Zeus-Father appeared as a storm-god, the autocratic ruler of the universe, and an offspring of elder deities, on the level of mythology. Such a concept does not correspond to the traditional Indo-European patterns and seems to have been formed under the influence of Near-Eastern concepts of the supreme almighty god, on the one hand, and the Cretan-Minoan concept of a young god/divine child, on the other. However, the Homeric concept of Zeus was adopted by his practising cults much later, only from the Late Archaic period.

Young Lukanian Archaeologists: YLA 1The first volume of Young Lukanian Archaeologists (YLA) sub-series examines monumental votive offerings (tripods or pedestals which supported statues, or fragments of statuary groups more complex) by Western Greeks of Magna Graecia and Sicily (also Massaliotes and Etruscans) in the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi between 6th and 4th centuries BC. The presence of Italian and Sicilian cities, from the lists of teorodochi and prosseni in the sanctuary, coincides with the most prosperous period of their history. Some of these dedications are known only through literary sources, while others are still detectable in the themenos. These are fragments with inscriptions that refer to imposing and prestigious offerings. The data collected show that the most important dedications are related to the 6th-4th centuries BC.

Proceedings of the Graduate Archaeology at Oxford conferences in 2010 and 2011This volume contains the combined proceedings of two consecutive conferences (2010 and 2011) organised by Graduate Archaeology at Oxford (GAO) to promote communication between graduate students in all disciplines related to archaeology. Reflecting the current difficult economic climate and austerity measures, both conferences explored challenging times and adaptive strategies in the past.

Proceedings of the 1st ICAZ Symposium on the History of the Domestic Dog,Eighth Congress of the International Council for Archaeozoology (ICAZ98), August 23-29, 1998, Victoria, B.C., CanadaThe remains of domestic dogs are found in archaeological sites around the world, providing an unexpected global link between archaeologists regardless of the cultures they study. Dogs were the first animal to establish a domestic relationship with humans and thus have the longest archaeological history of any domesticate. Due to this wide-spread distribution over time and space, the dog is literally the only animal that prehistorians have in common. Therefore the questions which still need answering regarding the history of the dog are relevant to virtually all archaeologists no matter where they work. The contributors hope that the presentation of these Congress papers in one volume will not only enlighten colleagues and non-professionals alike, in terms of what is presently known about the history of dogs, but will also encourage more consistent and rigorous data collection and reporting of archaeological dog remains in future. A fascinating and original work. Richly illustrated.

The art of the Hellenistic age (here taken as 332 BC to 37 BCE) in Palestine demonstrates the extent to which a province could be integrated into the rich, established culture of the Hellenistic world. Its study here examines the art itself, and specifically the themes, types, iconography, and style of local productions. The study can be instructive on the ethnic texture of Palestine, its regional differences, its widely practiced religion and cults, and its culture in general. Likewise, it may supplement both historical research on the period, which appears to have reached a dead end of sorts, and archaeological inquiry, the results of which have been partial or insufficient. It can help address whether the art was incorporated into the Hellenistic koine, the manner in which it utilized local and foreign elements, and the question of how the culture of the period left a mark so profound that it can be traced until the end of the Byzantine period.

The purpose of this study is to examine the healing strategies employed by the inhabitants of Egypt during the Roman period, from the late first century BC to the fourth century AD, in order to explore how Egyptian, Greek and Roman customs and traditions interacted within the province. Thus this study aims to make an original contribution to the history of medicine, by offering a detailed examination of the healing strategies (of which 'rational' medicine was only one) utilised by the inhabitants of one particular region of the Mediterranean during a key phase in its history, a region, moreover, which by virtue of the survival of papyrological evidence offers a unique opportunity for study. Its interdisciplinary approach, which integrates ancient literary, documentary, archaeological and scientific evidence, presents a new approach to understanding healing strategies in Roman provincial culture. It refines the study of healing within Roman provincial culture, identifies diagnostic features of healing in material culture and offers a more contextualised reading of ancient medical literary and documentary papyri and archaeological evidence. This study differs from previous attempts to examine healing in Roman Egypt in that it tries, as far as possible, to encompass the full spectrum of healing strategies available to the inhabitants of the province. The first part of this study comprises two chapters and focuses on the practitioners of healing strategies, both 'professional' and 'amateur'. Chapter 2 examines those areas of ancient medicine that have traditionally been neglected or summarily dismissed by scholars: 'domestic' and 'folk' medicine with particular emphasis on the extent to which the specific natural environment of any given location affects healing strategies. Chapter Three examines the nature and frequency of eye diseases and injuries suffered by the inhabitants of Roman Egypt. Chapter Four examines the nature and frequency of the fevers suffered by the inhabitants of Roman Egypt, focusing first on the disease malaria, which is attested by papyrological, archaeological and palaeopathological evidence as having been suffered throughout Egypt. Chapter Five examines the dangers that the animal species of Egypt could pose to the inhabitants of the province, focusing particularly upon snakes, scorpions, crocodiles and lions, as attested by papyrological and epigraphic evidence such as private letters, mummy labels and epitaph inscriptions. The concluding chapter underlines the importance for a study of the healing strategies utilised in any province of the Roman Empire (or indeed any region in the ancient world) of taking into account the historical, geographical, cultural and social context of the location in question.

The essays in this volume were originally presented at a symposium in honour of Mary Aiken Littauer, la grande dame de l'hippologie ancienne. The papers consider subjects and material of interest to her, including the chariot, harnessing and equipment, horse breeds and the advent of horsemanship across ancient Europe, Africa and Asia. The collection of these essays allows for comparisons that have not previously been possible in a single book. The volume also introduces the reader to a broad range of approaches, grounded in disciplines ranging from philology, archaeology, archaeozoology and art history to DNA research and experimental archaeology. Summarising past research as well as presenting much new information, the essays will be of interest to specialists and laypersons alike. The breadth and diversity of topics and areas represented honours the formative role that Mary Littauer has played in the research of the contributors.

Gold studies on the Indian Ocean- West Philippine/ South China Sea world system have tended to focus on global and often homogenous patterns in the fields of archaeology and history. However, there is increasing interest in pursuing the gold studies by starting from the putative 'peripheries' from where gold nuggets were mined in crude tunnels or panned in streams. Remote Sensing the Margins of the Gold Trade shows how Igorot societies negotiated their peripherality in the expansive porcelain-for-gold exchange system that was creeping onto their shores. The research looks at how the Igorot miners practiced their agency through their participation in tabu-tabuans or evanescent market encounter at the coastal trading centers. The findings are based on multiscalar and multidisciplinary analyses using regional GIS data, high resolution multispectral satellite remote sensing data, ethnographic data, primary and secondary written historical data, archival maps and images, oral tradition data, and archaeological data on the Early Historical to Historical period.

The Edge of Europe addresses the significance of Romanian WWI sites as places of remembrance and heritage. By measuring the case of Maramures against national and international heritage standards the work demonstrates that the Prislop Pass places of war hold heritage value both in terms of physical preservation and in terms of mapping the memorial-historical record. As well as providing the first ever gazetteer and survey of WWI sites on the Eastern Front, Roman's research suggests a model of conflictual landscape for approaching aspects of previously unexplored material culture of war and a tool kit for the assessment of unrecognised heritage.

L'ouvrage présente une analyse morphométrique et biométrique des Caprinae (Ovibovini et Caprini) actuels et du plio-pléistocène d'Europe occidentale provenant de 200 sites. De nouvelles interprétations et propositions taxonomiques et phylogénétiques y sont développées. La création d'une nouvelle tribu, Ovini, est proposée pour Ovis et Budorcas. Capra walie est repositionné en tant que sous-espèce de C. nubiana. La monophylie de C. ibex et C. pyrenaica, révélée par les analyses moléculaires, n'est pas confirmée par l'anatomie et la parasitologie. Une proximité entre C. pyrenaica et C. caucasica est révélée. L'influence de la loi de Bergmann et des isolats géographiques est mise en avant. Les modalités de l'origine et de l'évolution des Caprinae du Plio-Pléistocène résultent de l'analyse de sept genres et de seize espèces. Des néodiagnoses et des rectifications de déterminations sont proposées. Deux phases principales d'immigration sont reconnues ainsi qu'un appauvrissement progressif de la diversité des taxons. Une nouvelle répartition chronologique et géographique en découle. Ce volume fait partie d'un ensemble de deux volumes: ISBN 9781407357089 (Volume I); ISBN 9781407357096 (Volume II); ISBN 9781407354248 (Ensemble des deux volumes).This book proposes a morphological and biometric analysis of current Caprinae (Ovibovini and Caprini tribes) and Plio-Pleistocene Caprinae from Western Europe. New taxonomic and phylogenetical interpretations and propositions are developed. This volume is part of a two volume set: ISBN 9781407357089 (Volume I); ISBN 9781407357096 (Volume II); ISBN 9781407354248 (Set of both volumes).

La domus del Mitreo a Tarquinia presenta i risultati della ricerca archeologica a Tarquinia dal 2016 al 2018. Lo scavo di un grande complesso ha fornito documentazione della Tarquinia romana tra il III secolo a.C. e la tarda antichità. Chiodi votivi inscritti in latino e una fontana con un serbatoio d'acqua nascosto nelle sue pareti sono caratteristiche originali di questo edificio, da cui è venuta alla luce anche una statua di Mitra. I risultati mostrano due fasi principali: una nel II secolo a.C. e un'altra in età augustea. Anche le fasi finali sono importanti: nel IV secolo si verificò un crollo e l'area fu rialzata e livellata quasi ovunque e infine abbandonata nel VII secolo.La domus del Mitreo a Tarquinia presents the results of archaeological research in Tarquinia from 2016 to 2018. The excavation of a large complex provided us with rich documentation of Roman Tarquinia between the 3rd century BCE and Late Antiquity. Votive nails inscribed in Latin and a fountain with a water reservoir concealed in its walls are original features of this building, from which a statue of Mithras also came to light. The results show two main phases: one in the 2nd century BCE and another in the Augustan Age. The final phases are also important: in the 4th century a collapse occurred and the area was raised and flattened almost everywhere and finally abandoned in the 7th century.

In the ancient world, bronzes - from over-lifesize sculptures to small-scale utilitarian objects - were an omnipresent and integral part of everyday public and private life. Bronze was also a valuable resource. From a scientific point of view, recent decades have seen new methods of analysis to reconstruct the production processes of ancient bronzes. At the same time, research on ancient bronze sculpture continues to rely on art historical theories and methodologies in discussions of style and chronology. Irrespective of the nature of the object -be it sculpture, tool, or weapon - role and function must be studied in conjunction with the archaeological context with which the objects were once associated. The proceedings of the XXth International Congress on Ancient Bronzes address these key topics, bringing together experts from different backgrounds to investigate further the developing studies in the field of ancient bronzes.

A memorable volume to mark number 1000 in the BAR International Series. After the most prolonged period of study and research, Ann Brown has prepared a detailed, facsimile edition of Arthur Evans's travel diaries in Crete (1894-99), which are now part of the Evans archive in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Each page of the diaries is reproduced, showing all Evans's drawings and sketches; opposite is a transcript with commentary and notes. For each year, Ann Brown has written an introduction and she concludes her study with a range of valuable reference material. Evans had been a journalist, and his interest in politics is sometimes mirrored in his writing, as he spelt out the difficulties of working and travelling in the island. His diary also reveals the development of his ideas about a prehistoric writing system which he named Minoan, which he soon realized was earlier than that of Mycenae. As Arthur Evans's record proceeds, a picture emerges of the state of archaeology in Crete, and the co-operation between the small band of international scholars working and travelling in the island at this time. Everyone with the slightest interest in Crete will want to refer to this important book.

This study analyzes the gradual "acculturation" of the Celtic peoples in southern Gaul, taking as central themes 'Hellenisation', 'Romanisation', and 'Gallic identity'.

A detailed illustrated catalogue of 406 (Mediterranean, Africa and Near East) ceramic lamps, dated from the Bronze Age to Late Roman era, from the Rivel Collection.

The Early Medieval Archaeology Student Symposium was created in 2007 to provide a platform for research students and early career archaeologists focusing on the early medieval period (c. AD 300 - 1200) to discuss and present their work. Over the years, the symposium has become a major event at which new and interdisciplinary research is presented in the field. The 12th Annual Early Medieval Archaeology Student Symposium (EMASS 2018) was held in Glasgow from 19 - 21 April and was jointly hosted by the University of Glasgow and the Glasgow School of Art. Twenty-one papers and four posters by a total of forty individuals were presented over two days, of which nine are included in this volume. These papers highlight interdisciplinary theoretical and methodological approaches which have led to new and innovative research on the early medieval period.

L'Età del Bronzo Medio (meta' XV - meta' XIII secolo a.C.) rappresenta un momento cruciale per lo sviluppo culturale delle comunità indigene siciliane, caratterizzato dall'intensificazione del rapporti con l'Egeo e l'Arcipelago Maltese e dagli effetti di tali rapporti osservabili soprattutto sulle pratiche mortuarie. Il presente volume è una e propria edizione postuma delle due necropoli siracusane di Cozzo del Pantano e Matrensa, tra le più importanti per questo periodo, indagate da Paolo Orsi rispettivamente nel 1893 e 1898 e solo parzialmente pubblicate. Lo studio complessivo di oltre 400 manufatti, presentato per la prima volta con un'aggiornata documentazione grafica e fotografica, l'analisi delle problematiche cronologiche ancora aperte, l'esame critico del multiforme fenomeno della religione funeraria insieme ad un inedita disamina delle complesse dinamiche di riuso dei cimiteri preistorici in epoca classica e post classica, fanno di esso un imprescindibile punto di riferimento nella letteratura scientifica sull'archeologia della Sicilia antica.For the cultural development of the Sicilian indigenous communities, the Middle Bronze Age (from the mid-15th to the mid-13th century BCE) represents a crucial phase characterised by an escalation of the relationship with the Aegean and the Maltese Archipelago and by the effect of that relationship on the local mortuary practices. This book analyses two Siracusan necropoleis of Cozzo del Pantano and Matrensa, among the most important for this period, originally explored and published in preliminary form by Paolo Orsi in 1893 and 1898. The study of over 400 artefacts, offered for the first time with updated technical drawings and colour pictures, analyses ongoing issues relating to chronology. The critical examination of the multifaceted phenomenon of funerary religion and of the afterlife of the two cemeteries in the Classical and post-Classical period makes this book an invaluable reference work for scientific literature on the archaeology of ancient Sicily.

This book combines GIS aided landscape analysis with an examination of both historical and ethnoarchaeological data to provide new insights on the link between water sources and the built environment at Great Zimbabwe. The book interrogates the centrality of water in shaping spatial and social processes at an ancient capital. In addition, the author examines the different methods used by the residents of Great Zimbabwe to manage water sources and to transport water from sources to the domestic area and the implications of such methods to the use of space. It also examines the ways in which water sources influenced social formation and use of space at the ancient city of Great Zimbabwe.The author has managed to expertly strike a balance between deploying GIS tools and historical and ethnoarchaeological data to model the effect of water on the spatial and social processes at Great Zimbabwe.

Il Castello di Milano è un'opera medievale voluta dai Visconti e potenziata dagli Sforza. Oggi è sede di biblioteche, musei e raccolte d'arte, ma rimane una formidabile "macchina da combattimento", dove hanno lavorato tra i migliori architetti e ingegneri italiani. I soli studi d'epoca medievale riguardanti la Fortezza, a oggi noti, sono di Leonardo da Vinci, il quale ne ha esaminato le difese, comprensive delle parti sotterranee, prospettando i miglioramenti. Trent'anni d'indagini speleologiche condotte innanzitutto nei suoi sotterranei hanno permesso di eseguire le planimetrie dell'articolato sistema, composto anche di canali d'acqua segreti, mettendole a confronto con i disegni leonardeschi. Si è così compreso che una parte della Fortezza non è stata demolita, ma solo "cimata": oggi nel sottosuolo esiste un patrimonio archeologico, architettonico e artistico inestimabile, ma da recuperare integralmente. Il lavoro presenta un metodo d'indagine multidisciplinare che può essere facilmente applicato allo studio di ogni altra fortificazione europea. The castle of Milan is a medieval work commissioned by the Visconti and developed by the Sforza. Today it is intended for cultural functions but its origins are those of a formidable "combat machine". Some of the best Italian architects and engineers worked on the creation of the castle. The only studies known about the fortress, belonging to the medieval age, are by Leonardo da Vinci. He examined the defences, including the underground parts, looking for improvements. Thirty years of speleological investigations, first of all conducted in its basements, and also concerning secret water channels, have allowed us to carry out the plans of the complex system and to compare them with Leonardo's drawings. This has made it clear to the author that a part of the Fortress has not been demolished, but only "cut" in the surface. Today there is an invaluable archaeological, architectural and artistic heritage to be fully recovered. The work presents a method of multidisciplinary investigation that can be applied to the study of any other European fortification.