Books published by BAR Publishing

From obscure beginnings at the end of the Bronze Age to the award of the Ius Latii to all the inhabitants of Iberia by the Emperor Vespasian (AD 73-74), winds the long and uneven path of the 'Castros Culture' in the Iberian Northwest. A castro is a fortified village and it has given its name to the Iron Age Culture (or group of related cultures) in general, which occupied the region of the Iberian Northwest between the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the second century AD. Such sites were characterized by small settlements in their early phases, gradually evolving into urban structures under Roman influence. The period under study in this volume is bounded by the point of emergence of fortified sites during the final stages of the Bronze Age (c.1200-1000 BC) and the Flavian period, at the end of the first century AD. The principal area of study lies within the region confined by the Atlantic coast to the west, the Tâmega-Corgo river line to the east, the Minho river to the north and the Douroriver to the south. The main theme of this book is warfare in the Castros Culture. A fresh approach has been adopted, to evaluate the importance of warfare at this time and to see how it shaped the development of Castros society as a result. For this, warfare is examined in terms of the total environment in which it occurs, i.e. in terms of the geographical, economic, social and ritual landscapes in which it exists. The author's intention is to contribute a fresh and integrated approach to the subject of warfare and its social significance in the Castros Culture of the first millennium BC. A further intention is that his wide-ranging treatment of the subject will open up new directions for future research and detailed analyses.

The present volume follows on from the publication of Amorium Reports, Finds I: The Glass (1987-1997) in 2002. But whereas that volume had essentially a single author and was devoted to finds in a single medium, in this second publication in the Final Reports series several different team members have submitted chapters on a wide range of topics. These cover a number of different media and extend in time from the Roman to the Ottoman period. Additional finds reports are scheduled to appear in subsequent volumes. Eventually, when all the finds have been studied, the information from them can be assimilated and combined with the trench reports. In this way, a more comprehensive analysis and a better understanding of the various areas, trenches, and contexts may be achieved. While some of the reports presented here offer only tentative or general dates for specific objects, in the course of time greater precision should be achieved. An updated list of publications about Amorium (central Turkey) has been included and this will assist readers to find references to earlier reports and background information. As an aid to understanding the archaeological context and inter-relationship of the finds, concordances have been added wherever the material was sufficiently numerous to make such lists desirable. The volume presents the results of work in several different disciplines, and as a consequence is divided into two principal parts - finds reports and technical studies. As well as archaeology and art history, several of the reports draw heavily on analytical research and scientific methodology. Much more could and should be done to fill some of the gaps in this work, but to a large extent the ability to do so relies on research beyond the site of Amorium itself - either in an intensive survey of the city's territory or in the more extensive publication of comparable material from elsewhere, especially from other sites in central Anatolia.

This book provides a complete catalogue of the collections of Palaeolithic artefacts from Egypt housed in the Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford. Though none of these collections derive from excavations, they nevertheless constitute a valuable research resource from both a historical and an archaeological point of view, and additional information is provided in order that this may become clear. The seventeen collections comprise 1009 objects. The founding collection of the Pitt Rivers Museum, which arrived in 1884, included only a handful of such objects, but the numbers dramatically increased during the forty-eight years that Henry Balfour served as Curator (1891-1939). The earliest donations made during this period came from two Oxford graduates, Quibell (1896) and MacIver (1899-1901). These were followed by the collections of Forbes (1900), Garstang (1901), Mace (1904), Hall (1905), the Committee of the Egypt Exploration Fund (1910), Ruffer (1919), Bell (1921), Currelly (1924), Balfour's own small collection (1926), Davies (1926), Evans (1928) and Evans-Pritchard (1934). Henry Balfour died in 1939 and was succeeded by Tom Penniman, and it was during Penniman's term of office that the Seligman Collection was donated in 1940. The last collection, the Bishop Collection, arrived into the care of the fifth Curator, Schuyler Jones, in 1988. The collections fall into two categories: the largest category consists of those artefacts which were collected with a scientific and/or anthropological interest in mind; a much smaller category consists of artefacts collected by 'collectors', be they professional (the Egyptologists) or amateur (Seton-Karr and Ruffer). Among these field collectors, however, one man stands out. Charles Seligman collected everything: tools, cores, waste flakes and even small fragments. Because of his significant role in the development of Palaeolithic archaeology, and because his collection is by far the largest among the Pitt Rivers Museum Egyptian Palaeolithic collections, Seligman therefore constitutes the focus of this study. This book is divided into two parts. The first part provides a historical, archaeological and geographical context for the Pitt Rivers Museum collections of Palaeolithic artefacts from Egypt. The second part of the book consists of three catalogues. These collections represent a significant historical document which covers the first sixty years of Palaeolithic archaeology in Egypt.

Israel is, and always has been, a geographical, historical and most importantly cultural crossroads, linking three continents, three of the great ancient religions, and thousands of years of history and culture. Archaeology in this region has always been interested in urban areas, in ancient sites such as Jerusalem, but the rural area of this country has always been neglected. This is suprising considering that this has always been a region of small settlements, villagers, and herdsmen, such as those depicted in biblical sources. This study is aimed at depicting the wide ranges of rural lifestyles that have been present in Israel over the various periods of history. There are reports beginning with the Early Bronze age, passing through the Iron Age, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, and ranging as far forward as the period of occupation under the Mamlukes. This effectively spans the periods from the late Prehistoric through to Modern times. There are 10 reports in this study, and they deal with various artificial aspects of the rural way of life in ancient Israel in terms of the history and archaeology of various sites, and these reports deal with a number of sites or areas during a specific time-span. Studies focus upon particular themes such as Economic Activities (e.g. agriculture or trade), Settlement Patterns and Processes, and the Physical Construction of rural sites (e.g. village layout, architecture, roads and communications). The ten studies present do not cover the area that so wide-ranging a general title would suggest, but they do cover a large range of topics and archaeological methods. The first topic in this report is one giving an overview of Landscape Archaeology in the Southern Levant Region, going over various methods and practices carried out. This gives a good introduction to the report, and subsequent reports gradually build up a picture of the rural landscape of Israel. One interesting and unusual approach is taken by the contribution of J.Schwartz, whose report on "Dogs in Ancient Rural Jewish Society" is of particular interest. This perspective of study focuses on rural Israel in terms of sheep/herding dogs, hunting dogs, guard dogs, and the kufri-dogs (a sort of tamed wild dog or Jackal). This is a good example of how this study tackles life in rural Israel and gives an interesting and approachable account.

The objective of this monograph is to elucidate the nature of the health, diet and lifestyles of the two Iron Age populations buried at the cemetery complex of Aymyrlyg, Tuva, south Siberia, through an osteological and palaeopathological examination of their skeletal remains. A multidisciplinary approach was adopted which saw the integration of archaeological, documentary, and environmental evidence with the data derived from the skeletal analysis. During this work a rich array of traumatic lesions were identified among the remains, injuries which shed light on the everyday activities, occupations and warfare practices of the two population groups. The current text provides an in-depth account of the palaeopathological evidence for trauma, while placing it in its archaeological context. Appendix 1 contains data pertaining to the preservation of the remains and the minimum number of bone values that were employed during their examination, while Appendix 2 consists of a gazetteer of the skeletal remains included in the analysis which displayed evidence for trauma. South Siberia and Mongolia are amongst the regions of the Old World with the most ancient traditions of pastoralism. The analysis of the skeletal remains from Aymyrlyg provided a rare opportunityfor the examination of a substantial corpus of skeletal remains of semi-nomadic pastoralists from the vast Eurasian steppe-lands. The research represented one of the first palaeopathological studies of an archaeological population from south Siberia to have been undertaken and, as such, it has made a major contribution to our understanding of life and death in Iron Age Central Asia.

Birmingham University Field Archaeology Unit - Monograph Series 6This volume presents the results from two excavations in the extra-mural area of Roman Godmanchester. Excavation at the Parks, to the north of the Roman town, was undertaken during 1998 in advance of a housing development, providing an opportunity to examine a large area flanking a Roman road. Important evidence for early Romano-British land-division and pottery production, mainly in the 2nd to 3rd centuries, was recorded. The most significant discovery was of a cemetery, probably dating to the 4th century, containing 62 largely well-preserved individuals. Excavation at London Road, to the south of Roman Godmanchester, was undertaken in two stages during 1997 and 1998, in advance of a school development, and investigated an area to the rear of the Ermine Street frontage. In addition to evidence of early-prehistoric activity, the excavation identified a sequence of Romano-British ditch-defined enclosures, a timber-framed building, and evidence for industrial activity and livestock herding or ranching. The results of other, smaller-scale investigations, at Chord Business Park, to the south of the Roman town, and at West Street, within the Roman town, are also summarised.

The Nabataean period represents the flowering of a unique culture before it was conquered by Rome. It is conventionally dated from the fourth century B.C. to the Roman conquest in 106 A.D. The Nabataean Kingdom was located in an area between the great cultures of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Phoenician lands. This book focuses on describing terracotta figurines in shapes of humans and animals found on the Nabataean sites in South Jordan and Palestine and provides a detailed catalogue with respect to their shape, ware, possible date, technique of production, meaning and function, to provide important information about the Nabataean culture.

This study is an important contribution to the knowledge of the published (and much un-published) fifth- and fourth-century BC pottery imported into Cyrenaica (present day Libya), and especially into the region's great cities of Cyrene, Apollonia, Ptolemais, Barka, and Berenice/Euhesperides. The volume sheds great light on the historical relationship between Cyrenaica and the rest of the Greek world in terms of trade and agriculture, civil and domestic life, and myth, cult and religious practices (including references to the ever-fascinating 'Garden of the Hesperides' and accounts of the Panathenaean Festivals). A full catalogue and 160 plates of photographs (of superb and rare vessels from Libya and great collections from Europe and the US) are central to Dr Elrashedy's study, providing a significant resource for future reference.

Religion and ritual were an important part of life on Minoan Crete although identifying and characterising the deities venerated is not an easy task.

Papers from a session held at the European Association of Archaeologists Fifth Annual Meeting in Bournemouth 1999This work is the result of an EAA session exploring themes of unity and diversity in the way that archaeologists have come to explore and understand elements of the land of Europe. The 17 papers (all expanded and re-worked since the Bournemouth meeting) in this volume were brought together in an attempt to answer such questions and concerns as how can new approaches to past and present landscapes be applied in the field? What methodologies are appropriate? Do we need to re-set the agenda so far as routine survey and recording work are concerned? Included are contributions on theoretical issues, sites: environment relationships, field survey and post-survey methodology, landscape interpretation, and regional heritage management and protection. With an emphasis on the Stone Age, the sites featured range from Russia and Poland, to Italy.

Studies in the History of Collections IIThe Marchese Giovanni Pietro Campana was a Roman banker who formed one of the most important private collections of the first half of the 19th century. The Campana collection was an extraordinary assemblage of antiquities and modern arts and crafts, including maiolica, sculpture and painting from the medieval and Renaissance periods. This study is in two sections. The first is devoted to Campana's biography and to an examination of how he acquired and studied the objects in his collection; the second part is dedicated to the collection itself and its dispersal.

This volume is the result of the Prehistoric Society conference, held at the University of Sheffield in 1999, which concentrated on the ethnoarchaeology of hunter-gatherers and the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition. The 13 papers (representing sites from all over the world) are themed in terms of space, social change, and material culture, and reflect the conference's aim of presenting an 'exhibition' on the current state of ethnoarchaeology and the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition. The event was very much an open exhibition and the pictures - the papers presented here - are offered unabridged for the reader's enjoyment.

The 34 islands that comprise the Marshall group lie in the Pacific Ocean some half way between Hawaii and New Guinea. This study, incorporating landscape, habitation sites, chronologies, and material culture, is a detailed archaeological survey of Utrôk Atoll (in the Northern Marshall Islands) by the former Chief Archaeologist for the Historic Preservation Office, Republic of the Marshall Islands. Low coral atolls are the most precarious of Pacific island landscapes. Utrôk Atoll was colonized and settled for nearly 2000 years, and that resource depression and extinctions were not more visible archaeologically may signal that human populations lived in a sustainable manner. Future investigations may reveal different patterns of resource use, and it is with this comparative approach that we may come to understand the breadth of atoll adaptations - technological, economic, and social.

The book examines the use of pottery by late pre-European contact Cree people occupying a site on the bank of a river in east-central Saskatchewan (Canada). The site of Bushfield West yielded an unusually complete ceramic assemblage which was part of a rich archaeological component representing a possibly asynchronous human occupation. The intact site provided information on the vessel function, which could be correlated not only with the activities which were interpreted to have taken place on the site, but also with certain aspects of the social structure exhibited by the site's inhabitants. An opportunity arose to explore the relationship between pottery use and Selkirk Composite site occupation. Such a relationship can in fact be correlated with certain kinds of social organization, including gender-specific pottery use. The book includes a catalogue of the vessels examined.

The general purpose of this book is to help in the building and refining of theory and methods for studying the past. In one sense, empirical results about the past are by-products of theory construction, part of the iterative process in which we evaluate how well our explanatory system can account for the material world. This study presents just one part in the overall sequences of studies that address the processes that produce variability in stylistic frequencies. It is through this kind of continued experimentation that we will enjoy the fruit of knowledge building: archaeology as an historical science.

The three Iron Age and Romano-British sites presented in this volume demonstrate the implementation of the structured approach to developer-funded contracts promoted by PPG16. Investigation proceeded from desk top study with air-photo analysis, geophysical examination and fieldwalking, to intrusive evaluation and, finally, excavation. These processes are now commonplace, but in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when the sites under discussion in this book were being investigated, they were new and even controversial. Many regarded this new 'business-based' approach to funding and negotiation (under PPG16 rules) with some distaste and even hostility. Nevertheless, they soon came to adopt at least some of the new practices and began to undertake developer-funded contracts. The volume reviews the story behind this development.With contributions by Paul Booth, Robert Bourn, M. Charles, Phil Collins, Barbara Davies, John Davies, Daryl Garton, J. F. Hamshaw-Thomas, Jonathan R. Hunn, David Jordan, Alison Locker, Rajka Makjanic, Graeham Mounteney, James Rackham, Jane Sandoe, James Symonds, P. Wagner and Angela Wardle

A wide-ranging study covering the significance of the Lower Palaeolithic lithic tool traditions usually referred to as Early, Middle and Late Acheulian and Clactonian. The work (concentrating on selected sites from the Upper and Middle Thames Valley) includes sections devoted to the interpretation of significant patterns of artefact manufacture and use and the question of the procurement and economic use of lithic raw material. Special emphasis is given to lithic styles and technology, recurrent morphological patterns within stone tool assemblages, and the effect of the varying distances between occupation sites and the lithic raw material sources.

This study should prove useful to archaeologists interested in issues of ancient urbanism both for the site it describes and for the techniques it utilizes. Roman Empúries is a significant site not as well known outside Spain as it deserves to be. Evidence from the city can offer much to debates on Greek colonization, ethnicity of larger Roman settlements, and ideology in monumental architecture. The present work on the city, which flourished from the 6th century BC to the end of the 1st century AD, is the most extensive so far written in English.

This study, focusing on the Rum Seljuk dynasty in thirteenth-century Anatolia, combines local history, geography, art history, and archaeology to examine instances of an only partially understood garden tradition in one corner of the medieval Mediterranean. Gardens, and their architecture, have been neglected, not only because of the paucity of remains, the architecture they inspired was not monumental and relied strongly on a sense of place, and a sensitivity to the landscape. This book attempts to recover a measure of that sense and that landscape, as well as the activities that endowed them with meaning for those that enjoyed them.

Hypogean Archaeology No 10Il decimo libro della serie Hypogean Archaeology è dedicato alla storia dell'Acquedotto Civico di Milano (costruito a partire dal 1889) e alle architetture per l'acqua prelevata dal sottosuolo: i pozzi e le stazioni di pompaggio. L'acqua, elemento fondamentale per la vita, ha richiesto fin dall'antichità la creazione di sistemi per captarla e condurla nelle aree abitate. Il testo offre al lettore diversi spunti di riflessione per cogliere l'importanza di questo elemento e per conoscere le architetture adottate per la sua presa dalle falde acquifere profonde. Abbiamo inoltre esempi italiani di pozzi ordinari e di acquedotti antichi studiati e rilevati dalla Federazione Nazionale Cavità Artificiali (F.N.C.A.). Non mancano riferimenti a testi classici (Cesare Cesariano, Sesto Giulio Frontino, Vitruvio e altri) che tracciano un "percorso" di Archeologia dell'Acqua e introducono l'argomento principale.The tenth volume of the Hypogean Archaeology subseries is dedicated to the history of the Civic Aqueduct of Milan (built starting in 1889) and to those architectures designed to draw water from the subsoil: wells and groundwater pumping stations. Water, the fundamental element of life, has since ancient times demanded the creation of systems to capture it and lead it to habited areas. The text offers the reader various cues for thought for understanding the importance of this element and to know the architectures adopted for its grip from the deep aquifers. Furthermore, it presents Italian examples of ordinary wells and ancient aqueducts studied and surveyed by the National Federation of Artificial Cavities (F.N.C.A.), together with a wealth of references to classical texts (Cesare Cesariano, Frontinus, Vitruvius and others) that, trace the 'path' of Water Archaeology, and introduces the main topic.

Este libro propone una forma de estudiar la historia de los paisajes forestales desde una perspectiva arqueológica, más precisamente, desde el análisis de restos de carbón recuperados en sitios arqueológicos del norte de la provincia de Mendoza, en el centro oeste de Argentina. Especialmente, el estudio aborda el periodo entre los 1200 y los 100 años antes del presente, por lo que primero elabora un marco teórico contextual para los casos prehispánico, colonial y republicano. Este trabajo persigue el objetivo de comprender las características de los paisajes forestales asociados a los diferentes contextos de análisis de acuerdo a su forma, a la identificación de categorías de relación entre humanos y plantas y a las prácticas cotidianas de las comunidades estudiadas. El trabajo anexa una colección de imágenes y descripciones de maderas carbonizadas de referencia, útil para emprender nuevas investigaciones tanto en el área de estudios como en otras fitogeográfica o históricamente relacionadas.This book proposes a way of studying the history of forest landscapes from an archaeological perspective: more precisely, through the analysis of charcoal remains recovered from archaeological sites in the north of the Mendoza province, in central-west Argentina. The study focuses on the period between 1200 and 100 years BP, starting by developing a contextual theoretical framework for the Prehispanic, Colonial and Republican periods. It aims to understand the characteristics of forest landscapes associated with different contexts of analysis according to their forms, the identification of categories of relationship between humans and plants, and the daily practices of the communities studied. The work includes a collection of reference images and descriptions of carbonized woods, useful for those undertaking new research both in the area studied and in other phytogeographically or historically related areas.

Actes de la journée d'études du 11 mai 2017, Institut Catholique de ParisCette publication est le résultat de la première journée d'études sur l'art et l'archéologie du Proche-Orient hellénistique et romain qui s'est tenue à l'Institut Catholique de Paris. Le propos est d'aborder les circulations et les échanges artistiques afin de montrer les spécificités locales, les emprunts culturels et les apports extérieurs. Le domaine géographique traité est vaste: le Levant hellénistique, Jérusalem et la Judée hérodienne, le royaume nabatéen... Les thèmes abordés sont également très variés : l'architecture religieuse, les décors privés (peintures murales, mosaïques), les jardins, l'art funéraire. Compte tenu de la situation actuelle qui empêche un grand nombre d'équipes de travailler sur le terrain, il nous a semblé important de réunir des spécialistes afin de réaliser un état des lieux de la recherche au Proche-Orient.This book is the result of the first of a series of study days on the Art and Archaeology of the Near East to be held at the Catholic Institute of Paris. Its purpose is to discuss circulation and artistic exchange, in order to examine such themes as local styles, cultural borrowings and novelties coming from outside cultures. The geographical area covered is vast: the Hellenistic Levant, Jerusalem and Herodian Judaea, the Nabataean kingdom, Europos-Doura... The themes treated are also very varied: religious architecture, private settings (mural paintings, mosaics), gardens, funerary art. In view of the present situation that prevents a large number of teams from working in the field, it seemed to the editors important to bring together specialists to carry out such an inventory of research in the Near East.

The socio-economic nature of Late Postclassic (c. AD 1100-1500) Maya society is not well understood and still eludes researchers. Through a combination of analytical methods, including petrographic, chemical and experimental, examination of surface features and ethnographic analyses, this study reconstructs ceramic production technology, seeking regional patterns in the technology applied to vessels from the main centre of Mayapán and several north-central and eastern sites. The results provide new insights into the raw material selection and the manufacture of Late Postclassic ceramics, the existence and nature of technological traditions, and cultural divisions between Mayapán and north-central and eastern sites. Furthermore, new perspectives are gained on longstanding questions about the socio-economic role of Mayapán and neighbouring centres and the scope and mechanisms of ceramic exchange and distribution, informing current ceramic production and exchange models, and advancing our understanding of the socio-economic nature of this period.

This book gives a new account of society and social change in the upper and middle Thames Valley from the Late Bronze Age to Middle Iron Age, 1150-100 BC. A model is developed from social anthropological case studies setting out expectations on how societies are structured based on certain material manifestations. Patterns are found within the wide range of types of evidence that are integrated and synthesised. This includes settlements, house forms, metalwork, pottery, human and animal remains, monuments, landscape boundaries and special deposits.The main interpretation offered is that Late Bronze Age societies were fluid and unstructured by either social status differences or lineage identities, whereas Early Iron Age communities were more concerned with ancestral genealogy and inter-generational inheritance. By the Middle Iron Age, communal aspects of ritual practice and material practice were largely replaced by local and household concerns in which smaller groups displayed increasing autonomy from each other.

Il libro prende spunto dallo studio dei reperti del relitto di Rena Maiore, scoperto nel 1997 lungo le coste nord-occidentali della Sardegna. La parte del carico, costituita da 72 lingotti di piombo e 4 serbatoi di piombo (cistae), ne mette in luce il ruolo svolto dal lancio sia per uso privato che come metallo strettamente legato alla politica di consenso promossa da Augusto. Le 4 cistae possono essere messe in relazione con l'attività di almeno due plumbarii, che si trovano nella città di Arelate/Arles, nella parte meridionale della Francia. Un gruppo di lingotti, recanti il bollo Augusti Caesaris Germanicum plumbum, identifica la Germania come la provincia dove si trovavano le miniere. Anche se la maggior parte del territorio provinciale si è persa dopo la sconfitta teutoburgica, il governo romano è riuscito a pianificare e avviare, subito dopo l'invasione, lo sfruttamento delle fonti naturali situate nel paese.This book stems from the study of the finds from the Rena Maiore wreck, discovered in 1997 along the north-western coast of Sardinia. The surviving part of the cargo, consisting of 72 lead ingots and 4 lead tanks (cistae), sheds light on the role played by lead both in private use and as a metal strictly connected to the Augustan 'consensus' policy. The cistae can be related to certain plumbarii workshops located in the town of Arelate/Arles, in the southern part of France. A group of ingots, bearing the stamp Augusti Caesaris Germanicum plumbum, identifies Germany as the province where the mines were located. Even if most of the province's territory was lost after the Teutoburg defeat, the Roman government was able to plan, soon after the invasion, the exploitation of the natural sources located in the region.

The building process of the Egyptian pyramids has been the subject of many publications. However, a thorough review of this literature reveals that only certain aspects of this process have been studied in isolation, without taking into account the interaction between various activities involved, such as quarrying, transportation and building and without a sound quantitative basis. The present study aims at filling this gap by means of an integrated mathematical model. Attention is focussed on the largest pyramid, the one built by Cheops. The model simulates an efficient project co-ordination by balancing supply and demand of the building material, with all the activities related to the growth of the pyramid and by assuming a constant total workforce. It enables the reader to determine the effects of different building methods and of the productivity of the workers. Three building methods have been studied, successively making use of a linear ramp, of a spiral ramp and of levers. These methods are compared in terms of the number of men and man-years required. Calculations have been carried out for two sets of input data, indicated as base case and maximum case. In addition to the development of a comprehensive model for the construction of the pyramids,this work also contains a comparative analysis of other publications dealing with this subject.

This book includes papers from the Historical Archaeology Symposium held in Seville, Spain in 2006.

This work was inspired by research undertaken during a field survey of the later prehistoric remains of north-east Somerset (SW England) which showed that there were many cropmark sites of which little was known. The value of this evidence for the interpretation of prehistoric landscapes has been highlighted by a number of reports in recent decades. Across the country these surveys have added new dimensions to our understanding of prehistoric settlement patterns and the central role of aerial survey in elucidating these lost landscapes. The Bristol Avon Region had not previously been a primary research objective, as it lies outside the main concentration of known cropmarks. By collating the evidence from aerial photographs alongside that for previously recorded earthworks and excavations, then earlier hypotheses about this later prehistoric landscape could be re-evaluated. By taking the watershed of the Bristol Avon River as a whole it was hoped that regional differences in settlement morphology could also be identified to test these earlier hypotheses.

Written by Barry Hobson, assisted by Helen Molesworth and Kate Trusler .

This study investigates the drivers for the development of the elite Late Period tombs of the necropoleis of Memphis. It studies their conceptual basis in the context of the social and political situation of the Late Period. It examines the landscape of Memphis and explores the geographic, geological and man-made features that encouraged the creation of a 'sacred landscape' with a view to discovering what features made this a desirable place for the building of tombs and why Late Period clusters of tombs were built in some parts of that landscape but not in others; it also considers the significance of their alignment. It sets out to discover what religious, social or ancestral factors made the elite choose the location of the individual tombs, what determined their structure and how they relate to older as well as contemporary structures. Finally, the reason for the positions of the different burial grounds of Memphis, and the interrelation between them, is explored in order to establish the socio-political factors influencing that choice.